Mesopotamian and Egyptian papyri from 1900 BC describe women suffering from mental illness resulting from a wandering uterus (later named hysteria by the Greeks): The uterus could become dislodged and attached to parts of the body like the liver or chest cavity, preventing their proper functioning or producing varied and sometimes painful symptoms. As such, a harmonious life that allowed for the proper balance of yin and yang and movement of vital air was essential ( Tseng, 1973). Around 2700 BC, Chinese medicine’s concept of complementary positive and negative bodily forces (“yin and yang”) attributed mental (and physical) illness to an imbalance between these forces. Examination of prehistoric skulls and cave art from as early as 6500 BC has identified surgical drilling of holes in skulls to treat head injuries and epilepsy as well as to allow evil spirits trapped within the skull to be released ( Restak, 2000). Trephination is an example of the earliest supernatural explanation for mental illness. They coexist as well as recycle over time. Their treatments will also differ, from exorcism to blood-letting. As we will see below, an individual believed to be possessed by the devil will be viewed and treated differently from an individual believed to be suffering from an excess of yellow bile. Etiological theories of mental illness determine the care and treatment mentally ill individuals receive. Psychogenic theories focus on traumatic or stressful experiences, maladaptive learned associations and cognitions, or distorted perceptions. Somatogenic theories identify disturbances in physical functioning resulting from either illness, genetic inheritance, or brain damage or imbalance. Supernatural theories attribute mental illness to possession by evil or demonic spirits, displeasure of gods, eclipses, planetary gravitation, curses, and sin. Throughout history there have been three general theories of the etiology of mental illness: supernatural, somatogenic, and psychogenic. It was believed that drilling holes in the skull could cure mental disorders. Engravings from 1525 showing trephination. As a result, a less cultural relativist view of abnormal behavior has focused instead on whether behavior poses a threat to oneself or others or causes so much pain and suffering that it interferes with one’s work responsibilities or with one’s relationships with family and friends. In the past, uncommon behavior or behavior that deviated from the sociocultural norms and expectations of a specific culture and period has been used as a way to silence or control certain individuals or groups. Whether a behavior is considered normal or abnormal depends on the context surrounding the behavior and thus changes as a function of a particular time and culture. The evolution of mental illness, however, has not been linear or progressive but rather cyclical. References to mental illness can be found throughout history.
Understand the difference among the three main etiological theories of mental illness.
Identify what the criteria used to distinguish normality from abnormality are.
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